var presentation = ["Earliest Arithmetics<\/word>","The Earliest Arithmetics<\/strong> in English\nby Anonymous<\/phrase>","MATTER<\/word>","THE SUBJECT MATTER<\/strong>.<\/phrase>","Ancient<\/word>","medieval writers<\/word>","between<\/word>","Art of Arithmetic<\/word>","classical treatises<\/word>","Euclid among the Greeks<\/word>","Boethius among the Latins<\/word>","Science of Arithmetic<\/word>","Astronomy the Art of Calculation<\/word>","considerable progress<\/word>","early treatises<\/word>","long<\/word>","alphabetic notation<\/word>","Specimen<\/word>","Egyptian methods<\/word>","abacus<\/word>","use<\/word>","Ancient<\/strong> and medieval writers<\/strong> observed a distinction between<\/strong> the Science\nand the Art of Arithmetic<\/strong>. The classical treatises<\/strong> on the subject, those\nof Euclid among the Greeks<\/strong> and Boethius among the Latins<\/strong>, are devoted to\nthe Science of Arithmetic<\/strong>, but it is obvious that coeval with practical\nAstronomy the Art of Calculation<\/strong> must have existed and have made\nconsiderable progress<\/strong>. If early treatises<\/strong> on this art existed at all\nthey must, almost of necessity, have been in Greek, which was the\nlanguage of science for the Romans as long<\/strong> as Latin civilisation\nexisted. But in their absence it is safe to say that no involved\noperations were or could have been carried out by means of the\nalphabetic notation<\/strong> of the Greeks and Romans. Specimen<\/strong> sums have indeed\nbeen constructed by moderns which show its possibility, but it is absurd\nto think that men of science, acquainted with Egyptian methods<\/strong> and in\npossession of the abacus<\/strong>,[2*] were unable to devise methods for its use<\/strong>.<\/phrase>","INSTRUMENTS USED IN CALCULATION<\/word>","THE PRE-MEDIEVAL INSTRUMENTS USED IN CALCULATION<\/strong>.<\/phrase>","The following are known:--<\/phrase>","polished surface<\/word>","(1) A flat polished surface<\/strong> or tablets, strewn with sand, on which\nfigures were inscribed with a stylus.<\/phrase>","polished tablet<\/word>","(2) A polished tablet<\/strong> divided longitudinally into nine columns (or more)\ngrouped in threes, with which counters were used, either plain or marked\nwith signs denoting the nine numerals, etc.<\/phrase>","(3) Tablets or boxes containing nine grooves or wires, in or on which\nran beads.<\/phrase>","horizontal lines<\/word>","(4) Tablets on which nine (or more) horizontal lines<\/strong> were marked, each\nthird being marked off.<\/phrase>","fourth class<\/word>","Salamis<\/word>","chief part<\/word>","parallel lines<\/word>","cross<\/word>","arithmetical symbols<\/word>","The only Greek counting board we have is of the fourth class<\/strong> and was\ndiscovered at Salamis<\/strong>. It was engraved on a block of marble, and\nmeasures 5 feet by 2\u00bd. Its chief part<\/strong> consists of eleven parallel lines<\/strong>,\nthe 3rd, 6th, and 9th being marked with a cross<\/strong>. Another section\nconsists of five parallel lines<\/strong>, and there are three rows of\narithmetical symbols<\/strong>. This board could only have been used with counters\n(_calculi_), preferably unmarked, as in our treatise of _Accomptynge by\nCounters_.<\/phrase>","CLASSICAL ROMAN METHODS OF CALCULATION<\/word>","CLASSICAL ROMAN METHODS OF CALCULATION<\/strong>.<\/phrase>","Rome<\/word>","first method<\/word>","hand<\/word>","learn<\/word>","Horace<\/word>","Persius<\/word>","abaco numeros<\/word>","scit risisse<\/word>","Apul<\/word>","Apolog<\/word>","Mart<\/word>","Capella<\/word>","Cicero<\/word>","expert calculator<\/word>","Deorum<\/word>","Pallio<\/word>","Adeo<\/word>","est eboris<\/word>","precious metals<\/word>","nigris aureos argenteosque habebat denarios<\/word>","Satyricon<\/word>","We have proof of two methods of calculation in ancient<\/strong> Rome<\/strong>, one by the\nfirst method<\/strong>, in which the surface of sand was divided into columns by a\nstylus or the hand<\/strong>. Counters (_calculi_, or _lapilli_), which were kept\nin boxes (_loculi_), were used in calculation, as we learn<\/strong> from Horace<\/strong>'s\nschoolboys (Sat. 1. vi. 74). For the sand see Persius<\/strong> I. 131, \"Nec qui\nabaco numeros<\/strong> et secto in pulvere metas scit risisse<\/strong>,\" Apul<\/strong>. Apolog<\/strong>. 16\n(pulvisculo), Mart<\/strong>. Capella<\/strong>, lib. vii. 3, 4, etc. Cicero<\/strong> says of an\nexpert calculator<\/strong> \"eruditum attigisse pulverem,\" (de nat. Deorum<\/strong>,\nii. 18). Tertullian calls a teacher of arithmetic \"primus numerorum\narenarius\" (de Pallio<\/strong>, _in fine_). The counters were made of various\nmaterials, ivory principally, \"Adeo<\/strong> nulla uncia nobis est eboris<\/strong>, etc.\"\n(Juv. XI. 131), sometimes of precious metals<\/strong>, \"Pro calculis albis et\nnigris aureos argenteosque habebat denarios<\/strong>\" (Pet. Arb. Satyricon<\/strong>, 33).<\/phrase>","Roman<\/word>","appear<\/word>","third class<\/word>","number<\/word>","transverse wires<\/word>","left hand portion<\/word>","left hand beads<\/word>","right hand<\/word>","Swanpan<\/word>","Far East<\/word>","Russian stchota<\/word>","Eastern Europe<\/word>","There are, however, still in existence four Roman<\/strong> counting boards of a\nkind which does not appear<\/strong> to come into literature. A typical one is of\nthe third class<\/strong>. It consists of a number<\/strong> of transverse wires<\/strong>, broken at\nthe middle. On the left hand portion<\/strong> four beads are strung, on the right\none (or two). The left hand beads<\/strong> signify units, the right hand<\/strong> one five\nunits. Thus any number<\/strong> up to nine can be represented. This instrument is\nin all essentials the same as the Swanpan<\/strong> or Abacus<\/strong> in use<\/strong> throughout\nthe Far East<\/strong>. The Russian stchota<\/strong> in use<\/strong> throughout Eastern Europe<\/strong> is\nsimpler still. The method of using this system is exactly the same as\nthat of _Accomptynge by Counters_, the right-hand<\/strong> five bead replacing\nthe counter between<\/strong> the lines.<\/phrase>","BOETHIAN ABACUS<\/word>","THE BOETHIAN ABACUS<\/strong>.<\/phrase>","classical times<\/word>","tenth century<\/word>","fifth century<\/word>","end<\/word>","second class<\/word>","great probability<\/word>","whole passage<\/word>","Boethian<\/word>","return<\/word>","Between<\/strong> classical times<\/strong> and the tenth century<\/strong> we have little or no\nguidance as to the art of calculation. Boethius (fifth century<\/strong>), at the\nend<\/strong> of lib. II. of his _Geometria_ gives us a figure of an abacus<\/strong> of the\nsecond class<\/strong> with a set of counters arranged within it. 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