The Rise of Mussolini
11th and 12th Grade Literature and Informational Reading Texts
Despite being on the side of the victorious Allies in World War I, Italy was dissatisfied with the outcome of the Paris Peace Conference negotiations. Italy joined the Allies under the presumption that their loyalty would be rewarded after the war, with land around the Adriatic Sea. However, that did not come to fruition under the terms of the Treaty of Versailles. The Italian economy was also plagued by debts due to high wartime expenditures, inflation, and unemployment.
With unification having just happened in 1870, Italy was still a fairly new country when the worldwide depression hit after World War I, which was problematic because they were still gaining their footing in the economic and political realms. Conservative landlords retained significant power in rural areas. Urban areas were fraught with tensions between the middle and industrial working classes that came along with industrialization. In addition, loss of people and property in World War I left both soldiers and civilians feeling disillusioned. Labor strikes and land seizures evidenced discontent. Communist and socialist parties challenged the existing social order, leading citizens to question whether capitalism and democracy would be viable paths to peace and prosperity for Italy.
Fascism is often defined as any centralized, authoritarian government system that is not communist whose policies glorify the state over the individual and are destructive to basic human rights. The following excerpt was written by Benito Mussolini in 1932, explaining the concept of fascism for an entry in an Italian encyclopedia:
The foundation of Fascism is the conception of the State, its character, its duty, and its aim. Fascism conceives of the State as an absolute, in comparison with which all individuals or groups are relative, only to be conceived of in their relation to the State….For Fascism, the growth of empire, that is to say the expansion of the nation, is an essential manifestation of vitality, and its opposite a sign of decadence. Peoples which are rising, or rising again after a period of decadence, are always imperialist; and renunciation is a sign of decay and of death. Fascism is the doctrine best adapted to represent the tendencies and the aspirations of a people, like the people of Italy, who are rising again after many centuries of abasement and foreign servitude. But empire demands discipline, the coordination of all forces and a deeply felt sense of duty and sacrifice: this fact explains many aspects of the practical working of the regime, the character of many forces in the State, and the necessarily severe measures which must be taken against those who would oppose this spontaneous and inevitable movement …
Fascism was revolutionary in the sense that it included a willingness to overhaul the existing governmental system. Yet, fascism was conservative in the sense that it valued tradition and the restoration of national glory. With its rich history including the origin of the ancient Roman Empire and the birthplace of the Renaissance, the latter was quite appealing to the Italian people. A broad spectrum of groups within Italy were drawn to the ideology. Fascism was alluring to middle and upper class citizens, who feared losing status like their Russian counterparts did during the Russian Revolution of 1917. The ideology also attracted farmers, artisans, and small business owners who were leery of socialist revolution. Unemployment rates were high among World War I veterans, leaving them feeling disillusioned with few prospects for the future. Members of these groups provided a favorable audience for the promises of fascism.
Mussolini ran for office in 1921, but only got 7% of the vote. However, that would change as he made efforts to gain popularity and crush the competition. Mussolini's Black Shirts beat and killed opponents including communists, socialists, and labor organizers. Mussolini was also a charismatic leader and gifted orator. He promised the Italian people restoration of national glory. He also provided an alternative to communism and the troubled democratic system. In 1922, Mussolini led his followers in the March on Rome. He claimed that Italy was in chaos, and he was solely capable of restoring order. Mussolini threatened a government takeover. King Victor Emmanuel conceded, and made Mussolini prime minister. The Italian Parliament granted Mussolini emergency powers for one year, which enabled him to implement censorship, suspend civil liberties, and abolish political opposition.
In 1924, Mussolini was formally elected by the Italian people. This time, he garnered 60% of the vote. However, part of that was due to intimidation tactics, fraud, violence, and rigged polls. Mussolini took the title Il Duce, meaning "leader." By 1925, he ruled Italy as a fascist dictator. Other political parties were eradicated. Mussolini eliminated workers' rights to strike and dismantled labor unions. He censored the press and used propaganda to promote fascist ideals. The government took charge of the Italian economy. Public works put unemployed citizens to work constructing roads and expanding arable land to increase agricultural output. Mussolini claimed to bring efficiency to the economy, famously stating that he "made the trains run on time."
Mussolini continued to cultivate favor with the public. Some prominent business owners approved of his strides toward economic efficiency by ending social turmoil, restoring the traditional social order, and eliminating discord between political parties. Although Mussolini was an atheist, he recognized the significance of the Catholic Church as part of Italian heritage. The Lateran Accords of 1929, a series of agreements with the Church, established the Vatican as a sovereign state and acknowledged Catholicism as the official national religion in Italy. Fascism's nationalist fervor was evident in 1935 when Italian troops invaded Ethiopia looking for vindication. Mussolini appealed to Italian patriotism by promoting this action as a step toward reviving the Roman Empire. The League of Nations voiced their disapproval of the action, but took no real measures to intervene. Italy simply withdrew from the League of Nations.
With unification having just happened in 1870, Italy was still a fairly new country when the worldwide depression hit after World War I, which was problematic because they were still gaining their footing in the economic and political realms. Conservative landlords retained significant power in rural areas. Urban areas were fraught with tensions between the middle and industrial working classes that came along with industrialization. In addition, loss of people and property in World War I left both soldiers and civilians feeling disillusioned. Labor strikes and land seizures evidenced discontent. Communist and socialist parties challenged the existing social order, leading citizens to question whether capitalism and democracy would be viable paths to peace and prosperity for Italy.
Fascism is often defined as any centralized, authoritarian government system that is not communist whose policies glorify the state over the individual and are destructive to basic human rights. The following excerpt was written by Benito Mussolini in 1932, explaining the concept of fascism for an entry in an Italian encyclopedia:
The foundation of Fascism is the conception of the State, its character, its duty, and its aim. Fascism conceives of the State as an absolute, in comparison with which all individuals or groups are relative, only to be conceived of in their relation to the State….For Fascism, the growth of empire, that is to say the expansion of the nation, is an essential manifestation of vitality, and its opposite a sign of decadence. Peoples which are rising, or rising again after a period of decadence, are always imperialist; and renunciation is a sign of decay and of death. Fascism is the doctrine best adapted to represent the tendencies and the aspirations of a people, like the people of Italy, who are rising again after many centuries of abasement and foreign servitude. But empire demands discipline, the coordination of all forces and a deeply felt sense of duty and sacrifice: this fact explains many aspects of the practical working of the regime, the character of many forces in the State, and the necessarily severe measures which must be taken against those who would oppose this spontaneous and inevitable movement …
Fascism was revolutionary in the sense that it included a willingness to overhaul the existing governmental system. Yet, fascism was conservative in the sense that it valued tradition and the restoration of national glory. With its rich history including the origin of the ancient Roman Empire and the birthplace of the Renaissance, the latter was quite appealing to the Italian people. A broad spectrum of groups within Italy were drawn to the ideology. Fascism was alluring to middle and upper class citizens, who feared losing status like their Russian counterparts did during the Russian Revolution of 1917. The ideology also attracted farmers, artisans, and small business owners who were leery of socialist revolution. Unemployment rates were high among World War I veterans, leaving them feeling disillusioned with few prospects for the future. Members of these groups provided a favorable audience for the promises of fascism.
Mussolini ran for office in 1921, but only got 7% of the vote. However, that would change as he made efforts to gain popularity and crush the competition. Mussolini's Black Shirts beat and killed opponents including communists, socialists, and labor organizers. Mussolini was also a charismatic leader and gifted orator. He promised the Italian people restoration of national glory. He also provided an alternative to communism and the troubled democratic system. In 1922, Mussolini led his followers in the March on Rome. He claimed that Italy was in chaos, and he was solely capable of restoring order. Mussolini threatened a government takeover. King Victor Emmanuel conceded, and made Mussolini prime minister. The Italian Parliament granted Mussolini emergency powers for one year, which enabled him to implement censorship, suspend civil liberties, and abolish political opposition.
In 1924, Mussolini was formally elected by the Italian people. This time, he garnered 60% of the vote. However, part of that was due to intimidation tactics, fraud, violence, and rigged polls. Mussolini took the title Il Duce, meaning "leader." By 1925, he ruled Italy as a fascist dictator. Other political parties were eradicated. Mussolini eliminated workers' rights to strike and dismantled labor unions. He censored the press and used propaganda to promote fascist ideals. The government took charge of the Italian economy. Public works put unemployed citizens to work constructing roads and expanding arable land to increase agricultural output. Mussolini claimed to bring efficiency to the economy, famously stating that he "made the trains run on time."
Mussolini continued to cultivate favor with the public. Some prominent business owners approved of his strides toward economic efficiency by ending social turmoil, restoring the traditional social order, and eliminating discord between political parties. Although Mussolini was an atheist, he recognized the significance of the Catholic Church as part of Italian heritage. The Lateran Accords of 1929, a series of agreements with the Church, established the Vatican as a sovereign state and acknowledged Catholicism as the official national religion in Italy. Fascism's nationalist fervor was evident in 1935 when Italian troops invaded Ethiopia looking for vindication. Mussolini appealed to Italian patriotism by promoting this action as a step toward reviving the Roman Empire. The League of Nations voiced their disapproval of the action, but took no real measures to intervene. Italy simply withdrew from the League of Nations.